Single tactic systems hold little promise for codling moth control. Table 1 provides a comparison of a control system based on conventional insecticides and alternative pest management systems relying on multiple tactics for the control of fruit pests with the codling moth as the primary target.  Research has demonstrated the effectiveness of highly integrated pest management programs which result in fresh-market-quality fruit produced with very few chemicals (Prokopy 1990). The careful consideration of multiple pest/multiple tactic interactions allows growers to apply sufficient control pressure on key pests without interfering with the natural regulation of sporadic and secondary pests.  Once interference between tactics has been diminished, an accumulation of beneficial insects develops in the orchard.  In an orchard where a variety of tactics—including selective pesticides—are used, sampling reveals a rich community of arthropods and a variety of second, third, and fourth level trophic interactions (Croft & Hull 1983, 1992).  Also, natural enemies and other factors often provide complete biological control of phytophagous mites.    Biotic imbalances can ensue from use of these chemicals leading to outbreaks of other pests, particularly mites.  Once interference among pest control tactics is reduced to a minimum, the orchard begins to function as a complex, multi-trophic ecosystem.  Small perturbations, slight changes in the initial conditions of seasonal cycles, and subtle fluctuations in the rates of change in the orchard subsystems can be magnified in the agroecosystem and give rise to significantly different  outcomes.  The challenge is to identify and manipulate these subtle interactions to the benefit of the grower.  In light of increasing incidences of field failures due to organophosphate resistance and the cross resistance that extends to almost all alternate insecticides, it is critical that more diversified IPM systems be used for control of codling moth.   Efforts to integrate methods, such as mating disruption, microbials, and selective insecticides (e.g., insect growth regulators), cultural controls (such as destruction of unharvested fruit) and biological control by egg parasitoids, are being tested as components of IPM for codling moth (Croft & Giliomee 1993).  Use of much more diversified control systems for this pest, which will include a number of resistance management components, such as monitoring methods, are essential for the future of the region's pome fruit industry.